Instrument Electronics

0 Preface

1 Measurement Concepts

Units, Pseudo-units and Units Conversion 1

   Units and Computer Math 1

   Are There Divinely Given Units? 2

   Pseudo-Units 3

   Units Conversions 6

Range Limitations on Measurements 7

Log-Log and Semi-log Plots 11

Interpolation of Log Scales 13

Temperature Range Specifications 15

Computer-Based Instruments 17

Acquisition and Processing 18

Autocalibration 20

Two-Point Calibration 21

2 Analog Instrument Circuits

Differential Amplifiers 25

One-Op-Amp Diff-Amp with Offset 26

Diff-Amp Calibration and Measurement 31

Effect of Resistor Tolerances on Diff-Amp Gains 33

Diff-Amp Common-Mode Rejection 38

Statistical Error Analysis 41

Diff-Amp Error Example 50

Diff-Amp with Resistor Network 56

Gain-Switched Amplifiers 59

V/I Converters with Two Inputs 62

Decade Dividers of 1 % Resistors 64

Multi-Stage Resistive Dividers 67

Terminated Power Splitter 70

Terminated Divider 71

T Attenuators 74

Π Attenuators 77

Source-Measure Units (SMUs) 79

Output Amplifiers 82

Amplifier Output Resistance 89

Amplifier Active Termination Resistance 91

Amplifier Zo Compensation 96

Amplifier Error Sources 100

Autozeroing 103

User-Proof External Supplies 104

   One-BJT Current Limiter 105

   Improved One-BJT Current Limiter 107

   Two-BJT Current Limiter 111

Potentiometer Loading 117

TL431 Voltage Regulator 122

   TL431 Circuit Model 124

TL431 Parameter Derivations 128

   Output Resistance 128

   rout from Gm Currents 130

   Gm and ro from Test Data 131

TL431 in Feedback Circuits 133

TL431 Dynamics 136

   TL431 Output Impedance 141

Translinear Multipliers 145

3 Digital Instrument Circuits

Analog & Digital Compared 149

PWM DAC 154

μC-Based Σ-Δ ADCs 157

   Σ-Δ ADCs with Op-Amp Integrator 161

   Σ-Δ ADC Dynamics 162

ADC Input Ranging 163

   Two-Resistor Bipolar-to-Unipolar Conversion 164

   General Bipolar-to-Unipolar Conversion 165

   ADC Input Divider Design Procedure 167

ADCs and DACs in Feedback Loops 169

ADC and DAC Transfer Functions 171

Discrete Complex-Frequency Domain 176

   Discrete-Time Transformation by w 180

   From z to Discrete-t Equations 182

DSP, Control, and Numerical Analysis 183

Incremental Sine-Cosine Generation 185

Incremental Function Simulation 191

Amplitude Stability Criteria 198

Digital Integrator Frequency Response 200

Digital Integrator Circuits 205

4 Instrument Architecture

General Instrument Architecture 212

Instrument Architecture Philosophy 217

Measurement Instrument Subsystems 221

Analog and Digital Form a Continuum 225

Optimal Real-Time μC Architecture 227

Instrument Project Development 229

   Concept 229

   Design 229

   Evaluation 230

   Verification 230

Instrument Packaging 231

   Front-Panel Design 231

   Planar Boards 234

   Modular Stacks 235

   Single-Board Instruments 238

   Computer-Based Instruments 244

InterModule Bus 247

   Bus Connector and Pin Assignments 247

   Module Selection 248

   Module Configuration 249

   Parallel Bus 250

   Serial Bus 251

   Analog Pipes 251

   Power Bus 252

Monolithic Instrument Integration 252

   Instruments Not Yet Integrated 254

   The Configuration Problem 256

   The Minimum-Subsystem Instrument 258

5 Instrument Software

Can μCs Replace Analog Circuits? 261

Microcontroller Design Tradeoffs 263

Numerical Representation in E16 269

Instrument Computing Environment 270

Numeric Display 280

   7-Segment Display Driver 283

Compilation 289

Switch-Mouse 291

Two-Point Calibration 298

Menu Functions 301 

Rational Number Arithmetic 306

Graphic Display 313

6 Knowledge-Based Instruments

Embedded Diagnosis 317

Functional and Parametric Faults 319

Structure, Behavior, and Function 320

Knowledge-Based Diagnosis 322

Knowledge-Based Instrument Architecture 326

Instrument Electrical Processor 329

Waveform Processor 330

   Waveform and Electrical Object Representation 331

Task Decomposition 336

KBD Feasibility and Plan 337

Epistemological Postscript 340

348 total pages

 

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